Introduction
This guide is a strategic and operational tool for Tunisian municipalities. Its aim is to give them the instruments needed to anticipate, prevent and manage extreme heat episodes that may occur during summer 2026: heat spikes, heatwaves and canicules.
It is intended first and foremost for elected representatives of Tunisian municipalities, for heads of technical departments, and for officers responsible for civil protection and public health at local level. It may also serve as a reference for governorates in their mission of coordinating and providing technical support to municipalities.
The guide uses the generic term “extreme heat” to cover three distinct climatic realities: heat spikes (short episodes of 1 to 2 days), heatwaves (prolonged episodes of 5 days or more) and canicules (the most intense forms, combining high maximum and minimum temperatures). It covers the full range of municipal action: protecting vulnerable people, the resilience of infrastructure, water and energy management, land-use planning and institutional coordination.
Scope and limits of the guide
This guide deliberately focuses on protecting people and municipal infrastructure. For lack of space and reliable data, it does not address three specific areas: the impacts of extreme heat on animals and ecosystems, the interactions between canicule, drought and forest fires, and the effects on agricultural production and food security. These dimensions are inseparable from integrated climate governance.
In addition, several data sets used in this document (energy consumption, water network losses, health records) rely on sources whose updating and disaggregation remain insufficient. This constraint illustrates precisely the issue of data equity developed in this guide. Data gaps are not neutral: they steer, and sometimes distort, public action priorities.
Context and climate urgency
Tunisia is on a documented path of thermal intensification. The five highest annual anomalies since 1950 are all concentrated in the 2021–2025 period [1]. Winter 2025–2026 recorded an anomaly of +1.8 °C compared with seasonal norms, weakening the conditions for entering the summer season.
Copernicus Climate Change Service projections [2] place North Africa among the areas with the highest probability of abnormal heat for summer 2026, with a confidence level above 95%. The World Meteorological Organization [3] also signals a probable return of an El Niño episode, likely to amplify thermal anomalies over the Mediterranean region.
Extreme heat is known as the “silent killer” of the climate crisis, yet it remains one of the least governed risks. An analysis of 83 cities of the Global South [4] reveals a structural implementation gap: despite the intensification of thermal episodes, local governance remains largely reactive and chronically under-funded. This finding also applies to Tunisia.
Why municipalities are on the front line
It is at municipal level that public action moves from political abstraction to concrete protection of people. The municipality has the geographic and social proximity needed to identify precarious housing, locate vulnerable populations, activate cooling spaces and coordinate first aid. This responsibility is enshrined in the Local Authorities Code of 2018 (organic law No. 2018-29) [5], despite the setback to decentralisation since the adoption of the 2022 Constitution and the dissolution of all municipal councils in March 2023.
1. Tunisia facing climate warming
This chapter presents recent trends observed by the National Institute of Meteorology (INM), as well as the global climate projections available.
Recent observed trends
INM data [1] show a significant increase in the frequency and intensity of hot episodes since the 1980s. The five years with the highest thermal anomalies since 1950 all come after 2020: 2024 (+1.7 °C), 2022 (+1.5 °C), 2023 (+1.3 °C), 2021 (+1.2 °C) and 2025 (+1.1 °C). This is no longer a one-off trend, but a structural shift of Tunisia's climate regime towards a lasting hotter state.
This accumulation of positive anomalies over several years causes a progressive weakening: drier soils, lower groundwater tables, infrastructure under greater strain, and populations with less physiological resilience with each successive episode.
Projection of extreme heat in Tunisia by 2050
Climate projections for Tunisia by 2050 [6] reveal a dramatic intensification of extreme heat events. Under the RCP (Representative Concentration Pathways) scenarios, the number of consecutive days of strong heat will increase by +32 days under the moderate scenario (RCP 4.5) and by +39 days under the high scenario (RCP 8.5), an increase of 40 to 50% compared with the 1981–2010 reference period.
This escalation is not uniform: Mediterranean coastal regions and the southern desert zones (Tunisian Sahara) will experience the most marked anomalies. These projections give concrete form to the thermal anomaly observed by Copernicus in 2026 and make the urgency of adaptation clear at every level: explosive energy demand linked to air-conditioning, increased pressure on water resources, and acute health risks (heat-related mortality).
Alignment with global climate projections
The thermal trajectory observed by Copernicus [2] reveals a structural breach of historical norms: the years 2024–2026 sit durably above the 1991–2020 references, with a peak of 15.91 °C as early as May 2026, and no return to traditional seasonality. This consecutive thermal escalation, rather than a one-off event, signals a change in climate regime that calls for an acceleration of territorial adaptation policies.
2. Definitions and alert thresholds
This chapter clarifies the operational definitions, presents the four-level alert system proposed for Tunisia, and examines the local climate phenomena that amplify the effects of extreme heat.
Heat spikes, heatwaves, canicules
A heat spike is a brief thermal rise (1 to 2 days). A heatwave is a prolonged episode of 5 days or more, with a maximum temperature more than +5 °C above seasonal norms. A canicule is the most intense form, combining high maximum and minimum temperatures simultaneously, without sufficient night-time cooling.
Four-level alert system
Tunisia does not yet have a National Canicule Plan or any similar plan, structured around graded alert thresholds and intersectoral protocols. The system below takes its inspiration from the French [9] and Spanish [10] models, adapted to Tunisian thermal realities.
Perceived heat index
The heat index [11] integrates relative humidity and reflects the thermal stress actually borne by the body. Tunisian coastal areas can thus create conditions more dangerous than an equivalent dry heat in the interior.
Phenomena specific to Tunisia
- Sirocco and chergui: sudden rises of 5 to 10 °C within a few hours, significantly worsening the perceived heat index.
- Concurrent drought: worsens water stress on drinking-water networks and reduces the capacity for natural cooling.
- Forest fires: the combination of heat, drought and wind creates high risks, particularly in the governorates of Jendouba, Béja and Le Kef.
- Sandstorms: degrade air quality and worsen respiratory conditions among vulnerable populations.
3. Health impacts and the protection of public health
Municipalities are the first link in the health protection chain. This chapter examines the physiological mechanisms, maps vulnerable populations and proposes a municipal health management plan.
Physiological mechanisms and heat-related illnesses
Heat acts on the body along a continuum of increasing severity, which municipal staff must be trained to recognise.
Important: the main causes of death during a heatwave are not heat strokes, but cardiovascular, respiratory and renal complications linked to pre-existing chronic conditions aggravated by heat [12].
Mapping vulnerable populations
Extreme heat does not affect all populations uniformly. The WHO and WMO [12, 13] jointly call on governments, employers and workers' organisations to adopt heat-adapted work policies: adjusting work cycles, rest breaks, access to shade, cool spaces and drinking water, training of workers, and integrating weather data into occupational risk management.
Older people. Older people, particularly those over 65, are among the most exposed to the risks of strong heat. Ageing reduces the body's ability to regulate its temperature and increases the risks of dehydration, heat exhaustion and cardiovascular or respiratory complications. Social isolation, chronic illnesses and poorly ventilated housing further increase their vulnerability.
Young children. Infants and young children are especially sensitive to high temperatures because their bodies regulate heat less effectively. They dehydrate quickly and can develop heat stroke within a short time. Schools, nurseries and insufficiently shaded play areas are important zones of vigilance during canicule periods.
Pregnant women. Pregnant women have increased sensitivity to extreme heat because of physiological changes linked to pregnancy. High temperatures increase the risks of severe fatigue, dehydration, heat stress and complications during pregnancy. Women working in heat-exposed or poorly ventilated spaces need particular attention.
People with chronic illnesses. People with cardiovascular, respiratory, renal, metabolic or psychiatric conditions are highly vulnerable to extreme heat episodes. High temperatures can aggravate existing conditions, cause medical decompensation and increase the risk of hospitalisation. Some medications also reduce the body's ability to withstand heat.
Outdoor and exposed workers. People working outdoors or in strongly heated environments are among the most exposed groups. Agriculture, construction, road maintenance and waste collection are particularly affected. Extreme heat increases the risks of dehydration, physical exhaustion, heat stress, and accidents linked to fatigue and reduced alertness.
People in social or housing precarity. Low-income households often have limited access to adapted housing, air-conditioning or cooled spaces. Densely built, low-vegetation neighbourhoods suffer more from the urban heat island effect. People living in precarious housing, women heads of household, homeless people and people on the move face greater difficulties protecting themselves effectively against strong heat.
Article 152 of the Tunisian Labour Code
The employer must take all necessary measures to protect the physical integrity and mental health of workers [14]. The ILO [13] estimates that more than 2.4 billion workers worldwide may be exposed to excessive heat.
Practical application: a circular from the Minister of Labour can prohibit outdoor work from 11 a.m. to 4 p.m. during red alerts, without any change to the law.
The Tunisian paradox of behavioural adaptation to heatwaves
The study conducted by Van Loenhout and colleagues [15] among 417 urban residents in Tunisia (Tunis, Kairouan, Gafsa) between 2019 and 2021 offers much more than a simple audit of “awareness of thermal risks”. It sets out, with figures, a mechanism of partial and fragile adaptation.
The questionnaire covered four dimensions: heat-related symptoms, vulnerable groups, emergency behaviour, and preventive measures. Tunisian results stand out from the regional context by a singular feature: a remarkably high rate of behavioural compliance (91% of those who know a protective measure actually apply it) coexists with diagnostic gaps. This figure masks a critical flaw: only 39% recognise dehydration as a critical symptom.
Invisible inequalities: urban Tunisians do not experience canicules in the same way. The absence of gender-disaggregated data hides the structural trade-offs faced by women who care for others: work or rest in the heat? Cool the house or pay for electricity?
The single work shift facing a change of climate regime
The single work shift, introduced in 1956 and applied from 1 July to 31 August each year, long worked as an adaptation mechanism for thermal risks. It rested on a simple assumption: a thermal “safe zone” between 7 a.m. and 2 p.m., which avoided the afternoon heat peaks.
But since 2021 the climate regime has changed radically. Canicules begin as early as June and extend into September. Thermal peaks occur at unpredictable hours (morning, evening, night). Extreme temperatures reach 50 °C+ in Tunis. There is no longer any safe window. Nights no longer allow the body to cool down.
The major consequence: the single shift, calibrated for a linear, seasonal thermal exposure, becomes largely insufficient. More seriously still, after 70 years of normalisation it masks the urgency. It creates a false sense of security — “we have always survived summer” — whereas the current climate regime is not comparable with the past. This normalisation of the arrangement makes the structural change in context invisible.
4. Risks for urban infrastructure
Extreme heat weakens the infrastructure on which the daily functioning of municipalities depends. This chapter identifies the priority vulnerabilities and proposes prioritised corrective measures.
Roads and pavements
Above 60 °C at the surface, standard bitumen softens. Urban measurements [17] show that black bituminous surfaces reach 65 to 80 °C during canicule episodes. Major Tunisian arteries probably exceed these thresholds during summer peaks.
- Inventory of vulnerable surfaces before each summer season.
- Scheduling of maintenance work outside the June–September period.
- Inclusion of “high thermal-resistance bitumen” specifications in new road contracts.
- Trials of high-albedo surfacing (white, light grey) in dense pedestrian zones.
Drinking-water networks
The drinking-water infrastructure faces a double threat. According to SONEDE [18], 14,000 km of pipes are more than 50 years old on a total network of 59,000 km, and leakage losses reach 50%. Three main risks:
- Expansion and rupture of PVC pipes under direct solar exposure.
- Microbiological contamination through stagnation of warm water in reservoirs.
- Cuts during summer demand peaks, which can exceed normal capacity by 40 to 60%.
5. Energy demand management
Tunisia enters summer 2026 in a structurally strained energy situation. The primary energy balance deficit, which stood at 15% in 2010, reached 65% in 2025 [19]. Each summer demand peak is a test of the system's resilience.
Consumption peaks: reference data
STEG [20] recorded a peak of 4,825 MW on 20 July 2023 at 5:27 p.m., beyond the hours usually considered critical (11 a.m. to 4 p.m.). In July 2024 the peak reached 4,888 MW, a record. In July 2025, STEG [21] described the peak as “unprecedented” and had to manoeuvre to avoid a total collapse of the grid. Load-shedding was confirmed in 2024 and 2025 in Greater Tunis, the Sahel and the south of the country.
The load-shedding scenario
Load-shedding simultaneously cuts air-conditioning, refrigeration of medicines and food, and water pumping. This scenario must be anticipated and prepared for by each municipality before the summer season.
Energy sobriety and efficiency
The Tunisian energy transition strategy [19] states that more than 75% of closing the national energy deficit depends on efficiency and sobriety, against 25% attributable to renewable energy. For municipal buildings, whose air-conditioning equipment often dates from the 1990s–2000s, with coefficients of performance (COP) below 2, renovation is a direct reduction of pressure on a national grid already saturated.
6. Water resources under pressure
With fewer than 350 m³ of water per inhabitant per year, Tunisia lies well below the UN absolute water-stress threshold of 1,000 m³ [22]. Extreme heat amplifies this pressure: summer consumption can double locally, while leakage losses in the SONEDE network reach 50%.
Amplification effect: when extreme heat tips the system
Canicule episodes do not merely worsen structural water stress: they create operational tipping points. During summer 2023, when temperatures reached 49.1 °C in Gabès and Medenine and July 2023 became the hottest month ever recorded (+4 °C compared with normal), three dynamics combined:
- Accelerated evaporation of surface reservoirs in dams already at 27% filling.
- A peak in energy demand (4,692 MW on 10 July) causing power cuts, which in turn blocked the pumping stations.
- An explosion of household health needs faced with nights above 30 °C.
The quota system introduced in March 2023 was therefore tested twice over, exposing the fragility of a water governance designed for chronic droughts, but not for concurrent droughts and canicules.
Municipal water emergency plan
A strong recommendation of this guide is to equip every municipality with a water emergency plan that can be activated within 24 hours, which does not exist systematically today. This plan should bring together five components:
- Mapping of alternative sources: back-up wells, storage points, available tanker trucks.
- A preventive rationing protocol: rotation of cuts, advance communication to residents.
- Emergency distribution points, identified with opening hours and designated managers.
- A pre-agreed requisitioning arrangement with local transporters.
- A list of sensitive users passed to the SONEDE regional office: hospitals, dialysis centres, maternity wards.
7. Urban planning and Nature-based Solutions
Unlike emergency measures, urban planning and Nature-based Solutions (NbS) act upstream to structurally reduce the thermal intensity borne by populations.
The urban heat island
The urban heat island (UHI) can raise temperatures by 3 to 8 °C in dense city centres compared with peripheral areas. Its main mechanisms:
- Low albedo: black bitumen absorbs up to 95% of incident solar radiation.
- Soil sealing: the absence of bare soil removes natural evapotranspiration.
- Urban canyon: narrow streets trap night-time thermal radiation and prevent cooling.
- Anthropogenic heat: air-conditioning systems expel heat outdoors, locally worsening the UHI.
- Low plant cover: each mature tree in an urban setting produces a local cooling effect estimated at 1–3 °C.
Nature-based Solutions
NbS are defined by IUCN (2020) [25] as actions to protect, manage and restore ecosystems to address societal challenges. They combine thermal efficiency, reduced cost and citizen ownership.
8. Communication, alerts and community awareness
Principles of effective communication in a heat crisis
Communication is a decisive lever in responding to extreme heat. Populations that receive clear and early information adopt protective behaviours more effectively.
Communicating during an extreme heat event is a skill in its own right, often underestimated by municipalities. Poor communication — too late, too technical, inaccessible to vulnerable populations — can cost lives. The five pillars of effective communication are listed below:
- Anticipate and react: communicate before problems arise — first thermal signals detected, municipal plans updated, partners mobilised.
- Clarity and simplicity: messages without jargon, accessible to all, translating scientific data into concrete action.
- Multiple channels: combine traditional media (radio, television, press), social networks, public notices, and community communication (mosques, markets, schools).
- Credibility and trust: authenticity of the source, transparency on data and uncertainties, consistency between announced messages and actions taken, and authorities' commitment to the stated goals.
- Evaluate and improve: rigorous monitoring of indicators, analysis of field feedback, continuous adjustment of communication protocols.
Key messages to disseminate
Messages should prioritise concrete action, the hourly timetable of risks and neighbourhood solidarity:
- Drink 1.5 to 2 litres of water a day, even without feeling thirsty.
- Avoid going out between 11 a.m. and 5 p.m.; favour early morning and evening.
- Stay in the coolest rooms or go to a cooled public space.
- Close shutters and curtains during the day, and ventilate at night as soon as the outside temperature drops.
- Never leave an older person, a child or an animal alone in a vehicle, even briefly.
- In case of feeling unwell (confusion, hot skin, no sweating): call 190 and start cooling the person immediately.
- Check daily on isolated older neighbours.
A national free-call number on extreme heat / canicule
Tunisia should create a free national canicule hotline, available from 8 a.m. to 8 p.m. during orange and red alerts, activated by municipalities in coordination with the Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of Health.
The role of mosques and imams
In Tunisia, the mosque and Friday sermon remain a mass communication channel of unmatched effectiveness in working-class neighbourhoods and rural areas. Institutionalised collaboration with imams, through the Ministry of Religious Affairs, can help spread health-prevention messages within a framework of trust and social legitimacy.
9. International references and lessons learned
Analysis of the measures adopted by Mediterranean countries during recent canicule episodes offers a repertoire of concrete actions transferable to the Tunisian context.
Public health and vulnerable populations
Milan — support for fragile people. Every 1 July, Milan deploys a targeted plan for older people living alone (the “Caldo e solitudine” programme, Comune di Milano) [26]. In 2024: 6,300 people assisted and 1,000 meals distributed per day throughout the summer.
France — the post-2003 model. The canicule of August 2003, which caused around 15,000 deaths in France and 70,000 in Europe, led to a complete overhaul of heat governance. The response rests on four pillars: the National Canicule Plan, mandatory vulnerability registers, a four-level alert system, and a network of cooled premises.
Measured results. During the 2019 canicule — more intense than that of 2003 — mortality was reduced by 85% [27]. In 2023, around 2,816 excess deaths were recorded, five times fewer than in 2003 for comparable temperatures. This result illustrates what anticipated local organisation can produce.
Legislative and operational measures
Most cities of the Global South still operate under a crisis-management model: the response is triggered by the event, not prepared in advance. This model is structurally insufficient. Thermal resilience requires policies established before the risk reaches its peak: active vulnerability registers, pre-allocated budgets, tested protocols. This is precisely what the French and Spanish experiences illustrate.
Spain — ban on outdoor work. In May 2023, Spain adopted by decree-law (Real Decreto-ley 4/2023) [10] a ban on outdoor work during orange and red alerts, including a right of withdrawal for employees enforceable against the employer. In Tunisia this measure could be applied through a ministerial circular, without amending the Labour Code.
Greece — closure of sites and public services. Since 2023, Greece [28] applies a protocol of partial closure of archaeological sites (noon to 5 p.m. from 39–40 °C), with a quota of 20,000 visitors per day and thermal surveillance drones. In June 2024 (41–42 °C): schools were closed, refuse collection was suspended, and seven air-conditioned spaces were opened to the public.
Seville — naming heatwaves. Seville was the first city to adopt a system for naming heatwaves on the model of cyclones, in partnership with the Pro Climate Initiative [29]. This approach improves risk perception and strengthens the effectiveness of preventive communication.
Conclusion
Summer 2026 is not an exceptional episode to be endured. It is a sign of a climate regime that has durably shifted. Tunisia enters this season with converging data — multi-year thermal anomalies, ageing infrastructure, water resources under pressure — which make municipal inaction untenable in terms of public responsibility. We must stop believing that the single work shift or very basic awareness campaigns are enough in the face of a new climate regime. We must move from behavioural adaptation to a systemic transformation of our cities, our economies and working rhythms.
Treating heat as a meteorological or technical problem, rather than as a social and health crisis, leads to compartmentalised responses that ignore the social capital of community organisations — yet essential for turning technical alerts into advice that is appropriate and actionable for populations. Municipal heat governance must be designed as an act of climate justice as much as of risk management.
Tunisia illustrates a diagnosis now well established by comparative studies of urban heat governance in the Global South: the response to thermal episodes remains largely reactive rather than anticipatory. This model is structurally insufficient and generates institutional blind spots — no active vulnerability registers, untested protocols, no activation budgets, unassigned responsibilities — that are paid for in avoidable mortality. Thermal resilience requires policies established before the risk reaches its peak. This is the purpose of this guide, and for every Tunisian municipality it is a responsibility that can no longer be postponed.
This guide is a tool for immediate action. It asks municipalities to do, before 1 June 2026, what is feasible with the means available: establish a vulnerability register, identify and open cooling spaces, train staff in first aid, activate communication channels, and check critical infrastructure.
Shared international experience shows that reducing heat-related mortality is possible, documented and replicable. It rests on structured local organisation, anticipated and tested before the crisis arrives.
The capacity to protect residents during extreme heat episodes is not a matter of scarce resources or complex procedures. It is, above all, a matter of organisation and anticipation. Every municipality, whatever its size, can act.
References
References are numbered in order of appearance in the text (APA style, 7th edition). Titles are kept in their original language.
[1] Institut National de la Météorologie (INM). (2026). Bulletin climatique annuel 2025. Direction de la Climatologie, Tunis. www.meteo.tn
[2] Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) / ECMWF. (2026). Seasonal climate forecasts — Summer 2026. climate.copernicus.eu
[3] Organisation Météorologique Mondiale (OMM). (2026). Bulletin El Niño/La Niña — Mise à jour 2026. www.wmo.int
[4] Association Canadienne pour l'Intégration des Changements climatiques au niveau Territorial (ACICT) & Fédération Canadienne des Municipalités (FCM). (2024). Évaluation des risques climatiques dans les communes tunisiennes.
[5] République tunisienne. (2018). Loi organique n° 2018-29 du 9 mai 2018 relative au Code des Collectivités Locales.
[6] Ministère de l'Environnement (Tunisie). (2022). Stratégie nationale de développement résilient au changement climatique.
[7] GIEC. (2021). AR6 Climate Change 2021 : The Physical Science Basis. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896
[8] Ministère de l'Environnement (Tunisie). (2025). Contribution Déterminée au niveau National (CDN) 3.0 — Projet préliminaire soumis à la CCNUCC, novembre 2025.
[9] Météo-France. (2023). Seuils canicule par département — Indices Biométéorologiques (IBM). www.meteofrance.fr
[10] Real Decreto-ley 4/2023 (Espagne). (2023, 11 mai). Medidas urgentes para la protección de los trabajadores en episodios de calor extremo. Boletín Oficial del Estado.
[11] US National Weather Service. (2023). Heat Index Chart. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. www.weather.gov
[12] Organisation Mondiale de la Santé (OMS). (2018). Heat and Health in the WHO European Region. WHO Regional Office for Europe.
[13] Organisation Internationale du Travail (OIT). (2024). Garantir la sécurité et la santé au travail dans un climat en mutation. Bureau International du Travail. www.ilo.org
[14] République tunisienne. Code du Travail, article 152 — Obligations de l'employeur en matière de santé et sécurité au travail.
[15] Van Loenhout, J. A. F., le Polain de Waroux, O., Goyet, S., & Guha-Sapir, D. (2021). Knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding heat health risks among urban populations in Tunisia. BMC Public Health, 21, 834. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-10865-y
[16] ONU Femmes. (2026). Gender-differentiated and age-specific risks of heat stress in a warming world.
[17] Batiactu. (2018, juillet). Températures de surface du bitume noir en milieu urbain. Batiactu.com.
[18] SONEDE. (2025). Rapport annuel 2023-2024. Société Nationale d'Exploitation et de Distribution des Eaux, Tunis. Voir aussi La Presse de Tunisie (23 mars 2026).
[19] Agence Nationale pour la Maîtrise de l'Énergie (ANME). (2021). Stratégie nationale de maîtrise de l'énergie 2021-2030. Ministère de l'Industrie et de l'Énergie, Tunisie.
[20] STEG. (2025). Rapport annuel 2024 — Données sur les pics de consommation. Société Tunisienne de l'Électricité et du Gaz, Tunis.
[21] Tunisie Numérique. (2025). Un pic de consommation sans précédent : la STEG a manœuvré pour éviter un effondrement total. www.tunisienumerique.com
[22] Banque Mondiale. (2024). Renewable internal freshwater resources per capita — Tunisia. World Development Indicators. https://data.worldbank.org
[23] ONAS (Office National de l'Assainissement). (2025). Données sur la réutilisation des eaux usées traitées en Tunisie.
[24] Kapitalis. (2026, 22 avril). Station pilote de phytoépuration Oued Souhil, Nabeul. Kapitalis.com
[25] UICN. (2020). Standard mondial de l'UICN pour les Solutions fondées sur la Nature. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.CH.2020.08.fr
[26] Comune di Milano. (2024). Programma « Caldo e solitudine » — Rapporto estate 2024. Comune di Milano, Direzione Benessere.
[27] Santé Publique France. (2021). Bilan du Plan National Canicule — Épisodes 2003 à 2020.
[28] Ministère grec de la Culture. (2023). Protocole de fermeture des sites archéologiques en période de canicule.
[29] Pro Climate Initiative & Universidad de Sevilla. (2022). proMETEO Sevilla : classification et nomination des vagues de chaleur.
[30] Lowe, R., García-Díez, M., Ballester, J., Coll, M., Cunillera, J., & Doblas-Reyes, F. J. (2022). Evaluation of a probabilistic seasonal climate model. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 16(2).
Annex — Pre-summer 2026 checklist
This checklist consolidates all the actions to be completed by each Tunisian municipality before 1 June 2026. It is designed to be printed and displayed in technical departments.